Sports Science Terminology

E

Eccentric muscle contraction: Occurs when a force applied to the muscle exceeds the force produced by the muscle, leading to the lengthening of the muscle during contraction. 

Electrocardiogram (ECG/EKG): Used to measure electrical signals of the heart. 

Electrolyte: A substance that dissociates into ions and gains the capacity to conduct electricity. They play a role in muscle contraction, nervous impulses, etc. 

Electromyography (EMG): A diagnostic procedure that measures the electrical activity of the muscles and the nerves that control them.

Electron carrier: Small organic molecules that switch between oxidized and reduced forms and transport electrons during metabolic reactions.

Endurance: Your body’s ability to sustain a certain level of exercise for an extended amount of time. 

Energy expenditure: The sum of the basal metabolic rate and the energy expended during physical activity. 

Enzyme: A protein molecule that speeds up biochemical reactions. 

Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC): Increased rate of oxygen intake after intense exercise. Used in restoring the body to its resting state and adapting to the performed exercise. 

Explosive strength: Also known as power, refers to the body’s ability to produce the highest maximal force in an as short amount of time as possible. 

Extracellular fluid: A term for the fluids that exist outside of the organism’s cells, but inside its vessels and cavities. 

F

FADH₂: Also known as Flavin adenine dinucleotide. It is an electron carrier that transports electrons from glycolysis and the citric acid cycle to the electron transport chain.

Fast-twitch muscle fiber: Type II muscle fibers (IIa & IIb/IIx) are able to produce lots of force but they also tire quicker than slow-twitch muscle fibers. 

Fartlek training (speed play): A training method that involves exercising at various intensities during a single workout. For example, combining jogging with sprinting. 

Fat: One of the three main macronutrients alongside carbohydrates and protein. They have both structural and metabolic functions in the body and are also the most efficient energy storage in the body. 

Fat-free mass: Also known as lean mass or lean body mass, refers to the overall fat-free mass of the body. It includes muscles, bones, organs, skin, tendons, and ligaments. 

Female athlete triad: A medical condition of physically active women involving low energy availability or disordered eating, menstrual dysfunction, and decreased bone density.  

Formal operational stage: Last of the four stages in Piaget’s model of cognitive development. Characterized by sophisticated and advanced thinking – the ability to think about abstract and theoretical concepts using logic. 

Fibrosis: An increased amount of fibrous connective tissue in a joint or a muscle leading to impaired mobility. 

Flexibility: Your soft tissue’s (muscles, tendons, etc.) ability to elongate through the available range of motion.

FTO gene: A Fat Mass and Obesity Associated Gene (FTO). 

Functional training: Exercises that aim to improve your ability to perform daily activities without injuries. 

G

Gluconeogenesis: A metabolic pathway that generates glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as amino acids and lactate. 

Glucose: A simple sugar (C₆H₁₂O₆) and also the most abundant carbohydrate.

Glycogen: The form in which carbohydrates are stored in the body. Mostly in the muscles and the liver.  

Glycolysis: A pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, which can be used as energy. 

Glycolytic capacity: Maximum rate of conversion of glucose to pyruvate or lactate by a single cell. 

Golgi tendon organ: A sensory receptor organ that senses changes in muscle tension.

Growth plate: Also known as the epiphyseal plate or physis, is the growing tissue near the ends of long bones. Each bone has two growth plates on both ends during the early childhood and adolescent years. 

H

Health: ”A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity” (The World Health Organization).

Heart rate: The speed at which the heart beats per minute.

Hematocrit: Blood cell volume.

Homeostasis: A living system’s aim to maintaining a steady state in different situations.

Hydrostatic pressure: The pressure exerted by a fluid at hydrostatic equilibrium on the surface due to gravity. 

Hyperextension: A forceful movement or extension beyond a limb’s or joint’s natural range of motion. 

Hyperplasia: Muscle fiber splits into two under extreme strain.

Hypertrophy: Enlargement of skeletal muscle size through the growth of its component cells.

I

Impact set: a set of decisions made during face-to-face interactions in lessons – implementing the pre-impact decisions.

Inclusion: An educational model where students with special needs are included in regular classroom education. 

Interval training: A training session that involves repeated high-intensity exercises followed by rest periods. Interval training is usually considered anaerobic, but can also be aerobic exercise depending on the intensity. 

Intrinsic motivation: Act of doing something without external motivation – doing something because you want it yourself. 

Ischemia: Restriction of blood supply to tissues that results in oxygen shortage. 

Ischemic preconditioning (IPC): A method that involves 3-4 brief episodes of ischemia and reperfusion (gradual deflation) via a pressure cuff on a skeletal muscle. It is said to improve blood flow during exercise. 

Isometric muscle work: Muscle contraction that does not involve motion or have an effect on muscle length. 

J

Joint: An area where two or more bones meet each other and link the whole body into a functional whole.

K

Kilocalorie: Also known as a large calorie or food calorie, is a term used in nutrition to measure the energy value of food products. The term is used to represent the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a liter of water by one degree. One kcal equals 1000 calories or 4183 joules. 

Kinesthesia: Ability to sense the motion of a joint or limb. Primarily influenced by muscle spindles, then skin and joint receptors.

Kinetic chain: Your body’ s ability to produce movement through the coordination of multiple body segments.

L

Lactate: A conjugate base of lactic acid. 

Lactate threshold: Maximum performance an athlete can sustain without a significant increase in blood lactate level.

Lactic acid: An organic acid formed during anaerobic energy production, which quickly forms lactate in the muscles. Often used interchangeably with lactate. 

Lateral: of, at, towards, or from the sides.

Lean body mass: Also known as lean mass or fat-free mass, refers to the overall fat-free mass of the body. It includes muscles, bones, organs, skin, tendons, and ligaments. 

M

Macrocycle: Largest phase in the periodized training model, usually lasts a whole year.

Macronutrients: Also known as macros, are nutrients that the body needs a relatively large amount every day. Consists of carbohydrates, fats, and protein. 

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): Medical imaging technique that uses magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to generate images of organs and soft tissue. 

Manipulative skills: Performing motor skills that involve moving or using an object to complete a task. For example, bouncing a basketball.

Maximum heart rate (HR max): The highest number of beats your heart can pump during maximum stress.

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max): highest amount of oxygen a person can consume during a continuous intense exercise.

Menopause: A woman stops having periods and is no longer able to get pregnant naturally.

Mesocycle: Smaller phases inside the macrocycle of the periodized training model, often consists of 2-6 cycles depending on the sport.

Metabolic training: Training routine involving specific intense exercises that increase the efficiency of your body’s metabolism. 

Metabolism: A term used to describe all chemical reactions that maintain the living state of an organism. Can be divided into catabolism and anabolism. 

Metabolite: A product or intermediate of cellular metabolism. 

Metacognition: ”Thinking about thinking”, or being aware of one’s awareness. Used to plan, monitor, and assess understanding, performance, and learning. 

Microcycle: Shortest phase in the periodized training model, often consists of 1-3 week training routines.

Micronutrients: Essential elements that the body needs in small quantities. Includes Microminerals and Vitamins. 

Monounsaturated fat: A healthy fat that has a single carbon-to-carbon double bond. Often found as a part of the Mediterranean diet in ingredients such as olive oil, sunflower oil, nuts, and avocados. 

Motor learning: Describes a relatively permanent change in a person’s ability to perform a motor skill. Encompasses motor adaptation, skill acquisition, and decision-making. 

Motor skill: A learned ability to perform a certain physical task with maximum certainty. 

Motor unit: Motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers innervated by it.

Muscle contraction: A physiological phenomenon where a muscle activates and generates tension. 

Muscle cramp: A strong, painful muscle contraction that may last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. 

Muscle spindle: Receptors inside a muscle that detect changes in the length of the muscle.

Muscular strength: Maximal strength, describes your nervous system’s ability to recruit as many motor units as possible to produce as much force as possible.

Musculoskeletal system: Muscles, bones, ligaments, tendons, connective tissue, and fascia.

Myocyte: Muscle fiber.

Myosin: A protein that forms a contractive filament inside a muscle (along with actin).

Myotatic reflex: Stretch reflex, involuntary muscle contractions due to sudden changes in muscle length.

N

NADH: A reduced form of Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide that carries electrons from one reaction to another. An important cofactor in metabolism consisting of two nucleotides and their phosphate groups. 

NAD⁺: An oxidized form of Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide that accepts electrons from other reactions and becomes reduced.

Neural adaptation: A change in neural responses due to consistent training. For example, the ability to recruit and activate muscles through the central nervous system. 

Neuron: Also knowns as a nerve cell, is a specialized cell that transmits nerve impulses. 

Neurotransmitter: Chemical messengers that carry signals between neurons. 

Neuromuscular: Relating to both nerves and muscles.

O

Open skill: A skill performed in an unpredictable environment where the individual has to adapt to changes in surroundings.

Overreaching: The initial phase of overtraining. 

Overtraining: This occurs when a person is no longer able to recover from strenuous exercise. Often causes a decrease in performance, plateauing, and even mental health issues. 

Oxygen consumption (VO2): The amount of oxygen taken in and used by the body, also referred to as the rate of oxygen use. Often measured using a one-minute time frame. 

P

Passive stretching: Static-passive or relaxed stretching, refers to stretching without muscle work. Often done with a partner or using an apparatus to help you stretch in a relaxed state. 

Pedagogy: Study of teaching methods (teaching style, feedback, assessment & learning theories).

Perceptual sensitivity: The amount of detection of small a stimuli from an external environment regardless of visual or auditory ability. 

Periodization: A long-term systematic planning of athletic training. Can be further divided into microcycles, mesocycles, and macrocycles. 

Phasic muscles: The muscles responsible for movement. 

Plyometric training: Exercises that involve explosive jumps, leaps, etc. Often utilizes the stretch-shortening cycle of the muscles as you make contact to the ground. 

PNF stretching: Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation or partner-assisted stretching, refers to flexibility exercises where you contract the muscles isometrically while in a stretched state. It is currently the fastest known way to improve overall flexibility. 

Polyunsaturated fat: A healthy fat that possesses two or more double bonds in its carbon chain. It is often found in fish, oysters, nuts, seeds, and seed oils. 

Post-activation potentiation (PAP): A phenomenon where a muscle produces more force due to its previous contraction.

Post-impact set: the assessment made after the lesson – feedback and evaluation between the goal and the outcome.

Power: Describes your ability to produce as much force in as little time as possible. Often measured by the rate of force development.

Pre-impact set: a set of educational decisions that define the intent of the lesson – planning and preparation.

Preoperational stage: Second of the four stages in Piaget’s model of cognitive development. Development of language, memory, and imagination. 

Progressive overload: The training principle where an athlete must constantly increase training volume to improve and prevent plateauing. 

Proprioception: Also known as kinaesthesia, refers to the sense of self-movement and awareness of your body in relation to its surroundings.

Protein: One of the three main macronutrients alongside carbohydrates and fats. This essential nutrient consists of amino acids and they are the structural components of the body.

Protein synthesis: Process of creating a protein molecule.

Pyramid training: Involves a slow increase (or decrease) in weight or repetitions between sets. Usually starts off with lighter weights for more repetitions, followed by higher weights with fewer repetitions. After the highest resistance and lowest repetition set, the resistance reduces again. Hence, the sets form a pyramid. 

Pyruvate: Output of the anaerobic metabolism of glucose (glycolysis). Can be converted into carbohydrates via gluconeogenesis.  

Pyruvic acid: An organic acid (a ketone), that supplies energy to living cells through the Krebs cycle when oxygen is present. 

Q

Q-angle: Quadriceps angle. The angle between the longitudinal axis of the femur representing the pull of the quadriceps muscle, and a line that represents the pull of the patellar tendon. A Q-angle greater than 20° increases the risk of the quadriceps pulling the kneecap laterally. 

QT interval: A measurement used to assess the electrical properties of the heart. It refers to the time from the start of the Q wave to the end of the T wave.

R

Range of motion (ROM): The full movement potential of a joint. Often measured during flexion or extension. 

Rate of force development: Describes how much force you can produce in an as short amount as possible. Often used when assessing an athlete’s power capability. 

Reciprocal inhibition: A neuromuscular reflex that inhibits opposing muscles from contracting during movement. 

Relative strength: How strong you are for your size.

Repetition: A number of times a certain exercise, such as a jump, is performed continuously. 

Resistance training: Type of exercise that utilizes weights and other resistance. Used for improving muscular strength, muscular hypertrophy, and endurance. 

Respiratory exchange ratio (RER): The ratio between carbon dioxide (CO₂) produced and oxygen (O₂) used beyond the anaerobic threshold. 

Resting heart rate: The lowest heart rate your body needs to fulfill oxygen need while resting. A lower resting heart rate is considered a sign of good physical fitness. 

Resting metabolic rate (RMR): The body’s total energy usage rate during complete rest. RMR only supports organ functions, breathing, blood circulation, breathing, and basic neurological functions. 

Running cadence: Also known as stride rate, and is often measured in strides per minute. 

S

Sarcomere: The basic contractile unit of a muscle fiber, consisting of actin and myosin.

Sarcopenia: Decrease in muscle mass that leads to loss of strength.

Sarcopenic obesity: A medical condition due to the presence of both sarcopenia and obesity.

Sarcoplasmic hypertrophy: Increased fluid inside a muscle, especially after working out. Also known as ”the pump”.

Saturated fat: Fats that are solid at room temperature. They are also connected to heart diseases, diabetes, and other chronic illnesses. Common sources include red meat, whole-milk dairy products, baked goods, and even coconut oil. 

Schema: A pattern or thought process that organizes information and the relationships between them. Guides the cognitive process and behavior. 

Sensorimotor: Relating to both sensory and motor aspect of physical activity.

Sensorimotor skill: The process of receiving sensory information (touch, sight, hearing, smell, taste, etc.) and creating a response. 

Sensorimotor stage: First of the four stages in Piaget’s model of cognitive development. In this stage, infants are learning the relationship between their bodies in relation to their surroundings. Learned through trial-and-error. 

Set: A group of repetitions. A workout often consists of several sets of each exercise. 

Size principle: Motor units are recruited in order from smaller to larger motor units. The greater the resistance is, the more motor units are recruited for a specific movement. 

Skeletal muscles: Striated muscle tissue that is responsible for voluntary movement. Most skeletal muscles are attached to bones via tendons.

Slow-twitch muscle fiber: Type I muscle fibers are found in skeletal muscles. They contain a high number of mitochondria, myoglobin, and capillaries, giving them their red color. Slow-twitch muscle fibers are specialized in sustained physical activities that don’t require high force production.

Smooth muscle tissue: also known as involuntary muscle, contracts automatically and is often found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, intestines, bladder as well as in the walls of passageways like arteries and veins.

Spatial awareness: Ability to know where your body is in relation to its surroundings.

Speed: The distance traveled per unit of time.

Speed endurance: Ability to maintain near maximal speed for an extended amount of time.

Spotting: A training partner who makes sure your lifts are done safely and with good technique. A spotter may also assist with the last repetitions of a set.

Static balance: Ability to maintain balance while stationary. 

Static stretching: A stretch that does not involve movement. 

Steady-state: Highest physical workload without a continuous increase in blood lactate concentration

Strength: The ability to exert force. 

Stretch-shortening cycle: Muscle action that involves an active muscle lengthening phase immediately followed by an active muscle shortening. 

Stroke volume: The heart’s ability to pump more blood on a single heartbeat.

Substrate phosphorylation: Formation of ATP from ADP by the transfer of a phosphate group. 

Synapse: A junction between two nerve cells. 

Synarthrodial joint: A joint that permits minimal motion.

T

Tapering: Reducing the training intensity before a competition to provide more recovery time and reach peak performance. 

Thermic effect of food (TEF): The energy required for digestion, absorption, and disposal of ingested nutrients. 

Thermogenesis: The process of heat production in organisms. 

Thoracic gas volume: Absolute volume of gas in the thorax at any time and at any level of alveolar pressure. 

Training frequency: A term used to describe how often a person works out during a specific time frame. 

Training intensity: Term used to describe the difficulty of a specific exercise, faster movements or higher resistance are considered to have higher intensity

Training volume: Describes the overall quantity of an exercise (higher number of repetitions or more sets). 

Trans fat: A form of unsaturated fat associated with a number of negative health effects. Usually found in hydrogenated vegetable oils that convert liquid oils into semi-solid oils. Can also be found in some meat and dairy products.