- Introduction
- The basics of motor skills
- Gross motor skills
- Fine motor skills
- The three phases of motor skill development
- The cognitive phase
- The associative phase
- The autonomous phase
- Open and closed tasks
- Delays in motor skill development
- Final thoughts
- Sources
- Closed task: A skill performed in a relatively constant environment.
- Fine motor skills: the coordination between small muscles in movement with the eyes. Often involves the synchronization of hands and fingers.
- Gross motor skills: full-body movements that require large muscle groups, trunk, arms, legs, etc. simultaneously.
- Open task: skill performed in an ever-changing environment.
- Schema: memory representations of movement patterns.
Introduction
Motor skills form the basis of human movement. For example, crawling, walking, running etc. are all considered motor skills in their most basic form. During early childhood, these skills are often inaccurate and inefficient. However, as you age and constantly repeat these skills, they are slowly refined and new movement patterns are developed.
This post explains what motor skills are and how they can be developed most effectively. We have even made a list that shows what age certain skills are the easiest to learn.
The basics of motor skills
Motor skills describe your body’s ability to manage the process of movement. To perform motor skills, your brain, muscles, and nervous system must all work seamlessly together. Thus, your coordination is determined by how well you are able to use these motor functions to perform a desired task.
For example, walking, jumping, and grabbing are all considered fundamental motor skills. With age and repetition, you are able to perform these gross motor skills with better precision and efficiency. On the other hand, skills that require more dexterity are known as fine motor skills. These can be anything from pointing a finger, opening the zipper on your jacket, or even sports-specific skills such as hitting a golf ball.
Learning a new physical skill is also known as motor learning. At the beginning of learning any new skill, your brain forms a neural pattern (schema) that makes completing the skill possible. Practicing the same skill even further strengthens this neural connection, making it more efficient and easier to perform. In a way, you are building on previous skills according to the challenges you face now.
Share
Motor Skills
Are basic skills humans use in daily life (walking, jumping, grabbing etc.)Follow a certain hierarchy - some skills are learned before othersAre built on previous skillsImprove in accuracy & efficiency with practicePave the way for sport-specific skills
Gross motor skills
Gross motor skills consist of movements that require large muscle groups as well as movement of the entire body. These skills are usually more energetic and broad. They also create the basis for all physical activity.
Gross motor skills also develop in a head-to-toes order. For example, children first learn to control their heads, then their trunk, before standing up or walking.
Generally speaking, gross motor skills can also be divided into three subgroups; locomotor skills, manipulative skills, and stability/balance skills.
- Walking
- Running
- Jumping
- Skipping
- Galloping
- Marching
- Sliding
- Climbing
- Leaping
- Throwing
- Catching
- Kicking
- Punching
- Striking
- Bouncing
- Rolling
- Standing
- Turning
- Stretching
- Bending
- Spinning
- Rolling
- Balancing
- Swinging
- Stopping
- Dodging
Because gross motor skills are relatively simple, this also makes them easier to learn. Hence, they are also the first motor skills you learn and they help create a foundation for fine motor skill development. Although gross motor skills are easier to learn than fine motor skills, they still involve a significant amount of co-operation between muscles and the nervous system. Thus, playing an integral part in balance, coordination, body awareness, strength and reaction time.
Fine motor skills
Fine motor skill, or dexterity, requires smaller and more refined movements to complete a more complex task. Oftentimes fine motor skills also require coordinated movements between your hands and fingers with the eyes. This is known as hand-eye coordination.
In a way, fine motor skills are built on gross motor skills and rely on your ability to produce smaller movements with great accuracy. These include skills such as writing, picking up objects, and tying your shoelaces.
While gross motor skills remain relatively unchanged even after not using them for a while, fine motor skills require constant use to maintain precision and efficiency. It is also important to remember that both gross and fine motor skills form the basis for developing more advanced sport skills.
As you practice, every movement becomes more efficient. Eventually, you can move on to more challenging sports-specific tasks.
The three phases of motor skill development
Motor skill development is defined as a change in performance that is a result of continuous practice. This positive effect can often be seen as increased accuracy and improved efficiency in both simple and complex physical tasks. Since humans have to constantly adapt and respond to the challenges provided by their environment, motor learning is a relatively permanent skill.
The most well-known theory regarding motor skill development is Fitts and Posner’s (1967) three-stage model of motor learning. It consists of the cognitive phase, the associative phase, and the autonomous phase.
The cognitive phase
Cognitive phase, or understanding phase, challenges the learner with a new task. During this trial-and-error phase, you are trying to figure out what needs to be done in order to be successful with a task.
For example, how to place your feet when serving a tennis ball or where to position yourself on the pitch. Hence the name, cognitive phase – you must use a significant amount of mental processing to determine the best strategy to perform that specific task.
The learner receives new information
Forms an idea of what needs to be done to be successful in a task
When trying out a new task, your repetitions are often inconsistent with a low success rate. However, as you keep repeating the task, you also improve the best motor patterns while discarding the bad ones. Therefore, you are able to learn new skills relatively quickly.
Additionally, the cognitive phase relies on external feedback from your coach or training partner for the best results.
The associative phase
Associative phase, also known as the practice phase, occurs when the learner moves from what to do into how to do it. It is the process of refining the same skill by making small adjustments to your performance for more consistency. In a way, it reinforces relevant information regarding the skill while getting rid of unwanted ones.
The associative phase lasts a relatively long time and improvement will not be as fast as at the beginning of learning the skill. With repetition, the skill becomes more consistent, efficient, fluent, aesthetically pleasing, and easier to perform. This also allows you to focus on more challenging tasks because there is less need to concentrate on simple parts of the task. Open skills (where the conditions are constantly changing) will also become easier to perform during the associative phase of motor skills.
Trial-and-error phase
Learner compares new skill with old information
Learner changes methods according to their own thought-process and feedback from others
Autonomous motor skills are also learned through-and-through and stored in long-term memory. Meaning that you’ll also be able to maintain a good level of performance even after some time off. However, for the ultimate performance, you need to constantly practice to maintain your skill level.
The autonomous phase
Autonomous phase, also known as the motor phase, is the final stage of learning motor skills and can take years to reach. There’s a reason why people say that it takes 10,000 hours to perfect a specific task.
In the autonomous phase, the movement becomes almost automatic, which describes your ability to perform the same task very effectively and efficiently without even thinking about it. In a nutshell, the movement becomes an internalized skill that needs little mental effort to perform. From a performance standpoint, this gives you room to fully focus on tactics and surroundings.
Seamless interaction between muscles and the mind
Ability to combine different skills
Learner has had a lasting impact on learning that motor skill
Skill is learned through motivation, observation, exercise, learning & remembering
Autonomous motor skills are also stored in long-term memory. Meaning that you will be able to maintain a relatively good level of performance even after taking some time off. However, for the ultimate performance, you need to constantly practice to maintain your skill level.
Motor skill development is determined by genetics, environment, stimuli, and even access to training facilities.
Open and closed tasks
Our actions are almost always related to the environment we face. Thus, our motor skills must also be able to quickly react to changing situations provided by our surroundings. In sports science, these are called open tasks. For example, a football player has to respond to the movement and speed of the opposing team and try to find an opening. Thus, reaction time and fast decision-making become vital factors in athletic success. In fact, nearly all team sports rely on open task motor skills.
Closed tasks, do not require the same focus on external influences like an opponent or another team. They rely on your ability to perform the same task repeatedly as efficiently and accurately as possible. These skills include throwing darts or even a free throw in basketball.
It is important to note that both open and closed tasks can occur in several sports and in different ways. You might have a continuous task like endurance running, that has seemingly no end or even a serial task that requires a skill to be done back-to-back. A floor routine in gymnastics is one example of this. Some sports also need discrete tasks that have a clear start and finish. Pitching a baseball is a good example of this.
No matter what kind of motor skill tasks your performance needs, the most efficient way to train it is to stay within the needs of your own sport. Be sports-specific.
Delays in motor skill development
As stated earlier, motor skills are always learned in a head-to-toe order. They also follow a certain hierarchy which means that every new movement slowly builds on top of older skills. Thus, more broad gross motor skills are learned before fine motor skills that rely on accuracy.
The motor skill acquisition for a normally developing child often looks something like this:
Age
Skill
0-2 Years
Reflexes & Rudimentary Skills
2-6 Years
Basic Motor Skills
6-10 Years
Advanced Motor Skills
10-14 Years
Sports-Specific Skills
>14 Years
Advanced Sports-Specific Skills
However, children with developmental delays, neurological conditions, or disabilities may have difficulties learning fine motor skills. These skills can sometimes go undiagnosed until preschool, when these conditions become more apparent. In some cases, it may also be relatively easy to notice. For example, when a child is not reaching a simple gross motor skill milestone, such as rolling over or crawling.
It is also important to remember that these symptoms are diagnosed by a pediatrician if the child consistently misses major milestones. If a diagnosis has been made, the child can be offered occupational therapy, physical therapy, or even assistive technology to help them with everyday motor skill tasks.
Note: if you have any questions regarding your child’s motor skill development, consult your pediatrician.
Motor skills are built on one another.
Final thoughts
Although motor skill development is a natural phenomenon that everyone goes through, there are numerous factors that influence how well and how fast you can learn different skills. While motor learning is largely determined by genetics, your environment and the stimuli it offers can still have a tremendous effect on motor skill development. Even access to training facilities can impact on how well you can learn new motor skills.
Motor learning also requires motivation and focus on the task at hand. In more technical terms, your arousal (focus) and stress levels must be in balance. Experiencing too much stress in a learning situation may result in fatigue, which can appear in reduced awareness, hindered performance and even frustration. This can happen if an adult or a coach pushes the child too hard and too soon. On the other hand, if you are not focused enough, you probably will not give your full effort during fine motor skill tasks. Thus, you must want to learn the skill to actually learn it.
It is also crucial to remember that everyone learns at their own pace. Pushing someone too much too soon will only harm them in the long run. A better aim should be to provide multiple different motor skill challenges and adjust the difficulty when necessary.
Did you learn anything new about motor skills? Let us know in the comments.
Sources
- Adams, J.A. (1987) Historical review and appraisal of research on the learning, retention, and transfer of human motor skills. Psychological Bulletin, Volume 101, Issue (1), pp. 41-74.
- Adams, J.A. (1971) A Closed-Loop Theory of Motor Learning. Journal of Motor Behavior. Volume 3, Issue (2), pp. 111-150.
- Bilodeau, E.A. & Bilodeau, I.M. (1961) Motor-Skills Learning. Annual Review of Psychology. Volume 12, Issue (12), pp. 243-280.
- Bushnell, E.W. & Boudreau, J.P. (1993) Motor development and the mind: the potential role of motor abilities as determinant of aspects of perceptual development. Child Development. Volume 64, Issue (4), pp. 1005-1021.
- Branta, C., Haubenstricker, J. & Seefeldt, V. (1984) Age changes in motor skills during childhood and adolescence. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. Volume 12, pp. 467-520.
- Cratty, B.J. (1979) Perceptual and Motor Development in Infants and Children. Second Edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall Inc.
- Cratty, B.J. (1967) Movement Behavior and Motor Learning. Second Edition. Philadelphia, PA: Lea & Febinger.
- Dhawale, A.K., Smith, M.A. & Ölveczky, B.P. (2017) The Role of Variability in Motor Learning. Annual Review of Neuroscience. Volume 40, pp. 479-498.
- Eloranta, V. (2007) Ydinkeskeinen motorinen oppiminen. In: Heikinaro-Johansson, P. & Huovinen, T. (ed.) Näkökulmian liikuntapedagogiikkaan. Helsinki: WSOY.
- Gallahue, D. & Ozmun, J. (2002) Understanding Motor Development: Infants, Children, Adolescents, Adults. (5th ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill Companies.
- Hakkarainen, H., Jaakkola, T., Kalaja, S., Lämsä, J., Nikander, A. & Riski, J. (2009) Lasten ja nuorten urheiluvalmennuksen perusteet. VK-Kustannus Oy.
- Holopainen, S. (1990) Koululaisten liikuntataidot. Motorisen taitavuuden kehittyminen kehon rakenteen, kehitysiän ja liikuntaharrastusten selittämänä ja taitavuuden pedagoginen merkitys. Jyväskylä: Studies in Sport, Physical Education and Health, Volume 26.
- Jaakkola, T. (2010) Liikuntataitojen oppiminen ja taitoharjoittelu. Jyväskylä: PS- kustannus.
- Kalaja, K. & Kalaja S. (2007) Fyysinen toimintakyky ja sen kehittäminen koululiikunnassa. In Heikinaro-Johansson, P. & Huovinen, T. (ed.) Näkökulmian liikuntapedagogiikkaan. Jyväskylä: WSOY.
- Kauranen, K. (2011). Motoriikan säätely ja motorinen oppiminen. Helsinki: Liikuntatieteellinen seura.
- Krasnow, D. & Wilmerding, M.V. (2015). Motor Learning and Control for Dance. Principles and Practices for Performers and Teachers. USA: Human Kinetics.
- Magill, R.A. (2007). Motor Learning and Control. Concepts and Applications. 8th Edition. USA: McGraw Hill.
- Maxwell, J.P., Capio, C.M. & Masters R.S. (2017) Interaction between motor ability and skill learning in children: Application of implicit and explicit approaches. European Journal of Sport Science. Volume 17, Issue (4), pp. 407-416.
- Newell, K.M. (1991) Motor Skill Acquisition. Annual Review of Psychology. Volume 42, pp. 213-237.
- Numminen, P. (1996). Kuperkeikka varhaiskasvatuksen liikunnan didaktiikkaan. Helsinki: Gummerus.
- Salmoni, A.W., Schmidt, R.A. & Walter, C.B. (1984) Knowledge of results and motor learning: A review and critical reappraisal. Psychological Bulletin. Volume 96, Issue (3), pp. 355-386.
- Schmidt, R.A. & Lee, T.D. (2005) Motor Learning and Performance: A Behavioral Emphasis. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
- Schmidt, R.A. (1991) Motor Learning and Performance. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
- Schmidt, R.A. & Wrisberg, C.A. 2004. Motor Learning and Performance: A Problem-based Learning Approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
- Seppänen, L., Aalto, R. & Tapio, H. (2010) Nuoren urheilijan fyysinen harjoittelu. Docendo Sport.
- Thelen, E. (1995) Motor development: A new synthesis. American Psychologist. Volume 50, Issue (2), pp. 79-95.
- Vuohiniemi, M. & Miettinen, P. (1999). Taidon oppiminen. In Miettinen, P. (ed.) Liikkuva lapsi ja nuori. Jyväskylä: VK-Kustannus Oy.
- Wulf, G. (2016) Attentional focus and motor learning: a review of 15 years. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology. Volume 6, Issue (1), pp. 77-104.
Join our growing list of subscribers!
Stay informed about the latest in sports science and physical performance. Subscribe to our mailing list for the latest updates, posts, products and much more.
Daniel Kiikka
Daniel Kiikka holds a Master’s Degree in sports science, with a focus on sports pedagogy. After graduating from the University of Jyväskylä in 2015, Daniel worked nearly a decade within the world-renowned Finnish educational system as a physical education and health science teacher. Since 2021, Daniel has worked as a Lecturer at the Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences.
Related Posts
February 2, 2022
What Are Fine Motor Skills?
Fine motor skills are small movements that require dexterity and hand-eye…
January 4, 2022
What Is a Motor Unit?
A motor unit is the functional combination of a motor neuron and the muscle…
June 20, 2019
Stretches For Increasing Flexibility
Increasing your flexibility can seem like a daunting task. But it doesn't have…
Do you have studies that prove this case? “The best time for reinforcing old skills and developing new sports-specific motor skills is around 7-12 years of age.”
Hi Tony,
This is from a book called Näkökulmia liikuntapedagogiikkaan (2007). Unfortunately this is only available in Finnish. I can also take a look at what their primary sources were and then get back to you.
However, these should be taken with a grain of salt (I’m still considering leaving these out of the post). It is difficult to pinpoint what sports-specific skills can be learned most efficiently. After all, different activities rely on different movements, individuals have different starting points, etc.
For a more recent study, here’s a good one:
https://journals.lww.com/nsca-scj/fulltext/2020/12000/sensitive_periods_to_train_general_motor_abilities.3.aspx.
It also recommends against using generic sensitivity periods when developing young athletes.
Individualized training programs/methods that take the athlete’s starting point into consideration is the way to go.
Edit: we have decided to delete the section of sensitivity periods due to lack of convincing evidence. In conclusion, athlete development models should not rely on generic sensitive periods to train youth athletes.